VIRTUE ETHICS
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Overview of Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics takes an agent centred approach to morality, in contrast to the act-centred approach adopted by utilitarians (and other consequentialists) and by Kantians (and other deontologists). The origins of virtue ethics lie in ancient Greece, most particularly in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. But virtue ethics has been revived in recent years as an alternative to consequentialist and deontological theories.
Aristotle’s virtue ethics is articulated in his Nicomachean Ethics which is an edited collection of his lecture notes. The Ethics begins with an exploration of the summum bonum – the Good that we are all striving to reach. Aristotle thinks we all agree on what this is, namely happiness (eudaimonia) – in other words, living well, doing well and flourish. But we disagree on how to achieve eudaimonia and Aristotle reject the usual suggestions (a life of pleasure, or wealth, or hour, or goodness). Instead, Aristotle opts for a psychological account of happiness, based on the type of beings we are and on the function or characteristic activity we possess as a species, namely reason.
Aristotle argues that this function is determined by the activities of our soul, in particular our capacity to reason. If we excel at reasoning, and thus fulfil our function well (we are ‘good’ humans), then we will reach eudaimonia (living the good life and flourishing). Another term for ‘excel’ is ‘virtue’ which is a character trait or disposition, and Aristotle spends most of Ethics investigating those virtues or excellence which we need to possess in order to flourish.
Book two of the Ethics gives an account of the excellence of character (or ‘moral virtues’). Aristotle thinks that we develop these virtues through practice and habituation, like learning a skill, but these never become mindless habits. We also learn to take pleasure in acting virtuously. The ‘virtuosity’ of someone with virtue is an ability to develop responses to situations which are the right responses, and which avoid an excessive or deficient response – in other words, someone with virtue is able to find the mean. For example, someone with the virtue of courage is able to develop her character so that she avoids rash or cowardly behaviour, which are both ‘vices’.
Our judgements of people’s characters and virtues (including our own) are based on particular types of actions, ones which give us a clue as to the person’s real character. Aristotle gives a clear account of what types of actions we should be judged on, and which types are irrelevant. Voluntary acts are ones that we intended to do, and we must take full responsibility for. But some actions o against our intentions (involuntary acts) and these include acts that we feel compelled to do (which we are not responsible for). There is a further class of unintended acts (non-voluntary), which were the result of us not knowing the full facts of our situation: the key thing is that if we regret these actions once we find out the full facts, then these are treated as involuntary acts.
In additional to the ‘moral’ virtues (excellence of character), Aristotle also argues that the intellectual virtues must be developed if we are to flourish. When we excel at practical reasoning, this is termed ‘practical wisdom’, and it means that we are able to plan our lives and achieve our goals; we have a good understanding of any situation and are able to judge what the right thing to do is. But practical wisdom is inseparable from excellence of character (you cannot have intellectual virtue without having moral virtue).
The other intellectual virtue is ‘theoretical reasoning’ or contemplation. At the end of the ethics, Aristotle revisits that Good and suggests that contemplation is the highest goal we strive for. This seems to contradict the rich and varied life (of skillful and virtuous behaviour, of good fortune and health, of friendship and pleasure) outlined in the rest of ethics.
Aristotle’s virtue ethics is articulated in his Nicomachean Ethics which is an edited collection of his lecture notes. The Ethics begins with an exploration of the summum bonum – the Good that we are all striving to reach. Aristotle thinks we all agree on what this is, namely happiness (eudaimonia) – in other words, living well, doing well and flourish. But we disagree on how to achieve eudaimonia and Aristotle reject the usual suggestions (a life of pleasure, or wealth, or hour, or goodness). Instead, Aristotle opts for a psychological account of happiness, based on the type of beings we are and on the function or characteristic activity we possess as a species, namely reason.
Aristotle argues that this function is determined by the activities of our soul, in particular our capacity to reason. If we excel at reasoning, and thus fulfil our function well (we are ‘good’ humans), then we will reach eudaimonia (living the good life and flourishing). Another term for ‘excel’ is ‘virtue’ which is a character trait or disposition, and Aristotle spends most of Ethics investigating those virtues or excellence which we need to possess in order to flourish.
Book two of the Ethics gives an account of the excellence of character (or ‘moral virtues’). Aristotle thinks that we develop these virtues through practice and habituation, like learning a skill, but these never become mindless habits. We also learn to take pleasure in acting virtuously. The ‘virtuosity’ of someone with virtue is an ability to develop responses to situations which are the right responses, and which avoid an excessive or deficient response – in other words, someone with virtue is able to find the mean. For example, someone with the virtue of courage is able to develop her character so that she avoids rash or cowardly behaviour, which are both ‘vices’.
Our judgements of people’s characters and virtues (including our own) are based on particular types of actions, ones which give us a clue as to the person’s real character. Aristotle gives a clear account of what types of actions we should be judged on, and which types are irrelevant. Voluntary acts are ones that we intended to do, and we must take full responsibility for. But some actions o against our intentions (involuntary acts) and these include acts that we feel compelled to do (which we are not responsible for). There is a further class of unintended acts (non-voluntary), which were the result of us not knowing the full facts of our situation: the key thing is that if we regret these actions once we find out the full facts, then these are treated as involuntary acts.
In additional to the ‘moral’ virtues (excellence of character), Aristotle also argues that the intellectual virtues must be developed if we are to flourish. When we excel at practical reasoning, this is termed ‘practical wisdom’, and it means that we are able to plan our lives and achieve our goals; we have a good understanding of any situation and are able to judge what the right thing to do is. But practical wisdom is inseparable from excellence of character (you cannot have intellectual virtue without having moral virtue).
The other intellectual virtue is ‘theoretical reasoning’ or contemplation. At the end of the ethics, Aristotle revisits that Good and suggests that contemplation is the highest goal we strive for. This seems to contradict the rich and varied life (of skillful and virtuous behaviour, of good fortune and health, of friendship and pleasure) outlined in the rest of ethics.
What is virtue ethics? How does it differ from other normative ethical theories?
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•Normative Ethics
•Agent centred rather than act centred •About the kind of character you have, the kind of person you are •Focus on the individual person rather than the course of action |
Key Questions
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Unlike deontological and consequentialist theories, theories of virtue ethics do not aim primarily to identify universal principles that can be applied in any moral situation. And virtue ethics theories deal with wider questions—“How should I live?” and “What is the good life?” and “What are proper family and social values?”
A good, The Good and the summum bonum
• Aristotle's view of universe – teleological
• Everything had a purpose/function
• The natural state of things is to move towards a final goal (telos)
Aristotle's exploration of virtue found in Nicomachean Ethics. His thoughts about the significant of virtue emerge from a much larger project, namely the investigation into the highest good for humans… How can virtue help us in our pursuit of a life that is the best kind of life?
Aristotle states that “Every art, every procedure, every action and undertaking aims at some good… and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that which all things aim”
Everything we do is aimed at some good (everything has a purpose or end), different activities are aimed at various ‘goods’ and this end is itself aimed at some end. Something we do for their owns sake (ends in themselves) and others we do to bring about something else (means to an end).
Aristotle argued that everything is aimed at an ultimate good, known by the Latin phrase Summum Bonum. The the end or good we are striving to reach or what Aristotle calls EUDAIMONIA. Aristotle says: “There is pretty general agreement. ‘It is happiness’”. However this differs from our understanding of happiness as Eu mean good and Daimon means spirit. Aristotle explains that eudaimonia is identified with LIVING WELL AND FARING WELL/DOING WELL IN LIFE. -The way one would live if a guardian angel really did guide us through life.
• Everything had a purpose/function
• The natural state of things is to move towards a final goal (telos)
Aristotle's exploration of virtue found in Nicomachean Ethics. His thoughts about the significant of virtue emerge from a much larger project, namely the investigation into the highest good for humans… How can virtue help us in our pursuit of a life that is the best kind of life?
Aristotle states that “Every art, every procedure, every action and undertaking aims at some good… and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that which all things aim”
Everything we do is aimed at some good (everything has a purpose or end), different activities are aimed at various ‘goods’ and this end is itself aimed at some end. Something we do for their owns sake (ends in themselves) and others we do to bring about something else (means to an end).
Aristotle argued that everything is aimed at an ultimate good, known by the Latin phrase Summum Bonum. The the end or good we are striving to reach or what Aristotle calls EUDAIMONIA. Aristotle says: “There is pretty general agreement. ‘It is happiness’”. However this differs from our understanding of happiness as Eu mean good and Daimon means spirit. Aristotle explains that eudaimonia is identified with LIVING WELL AND FARING WELL/DOING WELL IN LIFE. -The way one would live if a guardian angel really did guide us through life.
What Eudaimonia is not...
• Pleasure – a ‘bovine existence’ fit only for cattle. Eudaimonia is the good for humans beings, it is not the same as the good for animals. We share pleasure with animals. Furthermore Eudaimonia characterises the activity of living one's life. Pleasure is a passive mental state.
• Wealth – acquisition on money is a means to an end not an end in itself. Eudaimonia must be a final end.
• Honour – bestowed upon us by others, eudaimonia isn't given to us but is something we gain ourselves.
• Goodness – you can be good but be suffering. Virtue can not guarantee eudaimonia
• Wealth – acquisition on money is a means to an end not an end in itself. Eudaimonia must be a final end.
• Honour – bestowed upon us by others, eudaimonia isn't given to us but is something we gain ourselves.
• Goodness – you can be good but be suffering. Virtue can not guarantee eudaimonia
The Function Argument
“To say happiness in the supreme good seems a platitude, and some more distinctive account of it is still required. This might perhaps be achieved by grasping what is the function of man”
A good can-opener fulfills its function well because it has the appropriate arete (excellences or virtues): it is sharp, safe, easy to use
Being a good person was linked to being good at whatever role you played in society. Eg. A soldier is good in a moral sense if you have all the qualities that a soldier needs in order to excel in your allocated role (ergon) as a soldier. Link between instrumental goodness and moral value. We also have a function that goes above and beyond the one prescribed to us though any role we might have in society. By understanding our function as a human being we can understand how we can be good.
A.What type of life we should be leading to reach eudaimonia drawing a connection between the instrumental goodness of a human (whether or not we fulfil our function well) and the overall Good for a human (how we can flourish)
B.Humans must have a function he argues because a) different people with different occupations have a function and different parts of a human body have a function. It doesn't make sense that there would have functions but a) ‘man has none and b) a human being as a whole has none.
Remember eudaimonia must be unique to us as humans…
What is the characteristic that distinguishes us from other things?
–Can not be nutrition and growth. (shared with plants)
–Can not be sentience or perception (shared with animals)
It is LOGOS. Our reason. “The function of man is an activity of the soul which follows or implies a rational principle”
The soul for Aristotle is not some separate, spiritual side of our self but a kind of blueprint, or form of a living being. Humans have rational souls so our function is to exercise the rational parts of our soul. Our function is determined by the kind of thing we are. Our function as human beings is determined by the makeup of our souls. So if we want to understand our function, we must understand the soul.
The good life for humans.. “An activity of the soul in accordance with virtue”. For something to be good and function well it needs certain special qualities (arete). Arete should be understood as ‘excellence’.We must excel (be virtuous) in the different parts of our soul. The soul is divided in to two parts: Rational and non-rational.
The most significant non-rational part of our soul is our character. We develop our excellence of character (our moral virtue) through developing good habits and positive dispositions.
- Function ‘ergon’ in ancient Greek
- If we want to know how to be eudaimon we must examine how we can function well as humans, how we can be good humans
- The GOOD LIFE is links to being a WELL-FUNCTIONING HUMAN = ARETE = ERGON
A good can-opener fulfills its function well because it has the appropriate arete (excellences or virtues): it is sharp, safe, easy to use
Being a good person was linked to being good at whatever role you played in society. Eg. A soldier is good in a moral sense if you have all the qualities that a soldier needs in order to excel in your allocated role (ergon) as a soldier. Link between instrumental goodness and moral value. We also have a function that goes above and beyond the one prescribed to us though any role we might have in society. By understanding our function as a human being we can understand how we can be good.
A.What type of life we should be leading to reach eudaimonia drawing a connection between the instrumental goodness of a human (whether or not we fulfil our function well) and the overall Good for a human (how we can flourish)
B.Humans must have a function he argues because a) different people with different occupations have a function and different parts of a human body have a function. It doesn't make sense that there would have functions but a) ‘man has none and b) a human being as a whole has none.
Remember eudaimonia must be unique to us as humans…
What is the characteristic that distinguishes us from other things?
–Can not be nutrition and growth. (shared with plants)
–Can not be sentience or perception (shared with animals)
It is LOGOS. Our reason. “The function of man is an activity of the soul which follows or implies a rational principle”
The soul for Aristotle is not some separate, spiritual side of our self but a kind of blueprint, or form of a living being. Humans have rational souls so our function is to exercise the rational parts of our soul. Our function is determined by the kind of thing we are. Our function as human beings is determined by the makeup of our souls. So if we want to understand our function, we must understand the soul.
The good life for humans.. “An activity of the soul in accordance with virtue”. For something to be good and function well it needs certain special qualities (arete). Arete should be understood as ‘excellence’.We must excel (be virtuous) in the different parts of our soul. The soul is divided in to two parts: Rational and non-rational.
The most significant non-rational part of our soul is our character. We develop our excellence of character (our moral virtue) through developing good habits and positive dispositions.
The Golden/Doctrine of the Mean
• How we can attain excellence of character
• It is in the nature of some things to be destroyed by excess and deficiency
• E.g. health – if we eat too much or too little
“Virtue is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean”
“Temperance and courage are destroyed by excess and deficiency and preserved by the mean”
Courage means striking the balance between fear and confidence in the face of danger and threat. If you tend to feel and respond to fear too much then you are cowardly. If you tend to feel and respond with too much confidence, then you are rash and foolhardy But if you get the balance right and you are able to overcome fear, while not doing anything stupid through overconfidence then you are courageous.
KAKIA - Rashness and cowardice are kakia, translated as vice. However it is better thought of as a deficiency, a flaw, a defect.
It appears that Aristotle recommends that in any situations we should act in a way that avoids the extremes and instead display a moderate amount of feeling, a moderate amount of indulgence, a moderate amount of pride and so on. Sometimes the moderate responses is not the appropriate one. It is reasonable to expect that there will be situations where different displays on anger for example would be appropriate. Acting moderately is not what Aristotle meant by the mean.
How do we find the mean? The mean can be calculated OBJECTIVELY – as a fixed point which is equidistant between two fixed extremes or it can be RELATIVE to us. We needed Practical Wisdom and Ethica arete to find the mean. Practical wisdom and ethica arete combine to give us skills with which we can flourish. Ethica arete gives us the desires, the emotions and the goals. Practical wisdom uses these to drive our action towards exactly the right action and appropriate expression of that emotion. That is someone who really does have excellence of character.
Therefore the golden mean can be best understood as a description of people who by making the most appropriate decision in each situation, nurture the right kind of dispositions to equip them for future situations, and in doing so avoid inappropriate excess or deficient responses. People who are able to shape their character is this manner are well on their way to flourishing.
How do we acquire virtues? The Skill Analogy
Aristotle compares the development of a virtue with the development of a practical skill like learning an instrument or a craft. “The virtues we acquire by first exercising them, just as happens in the arts. For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them: people become builders by building and instrumentalists by playing instruments. Similarly we become just be performing just acts… brave by performing brave ones”.
There are key elements in the development of any skill:
• Initial observation, guidance and input by an expert
• Starting to practise the skill (this will be difficult and painful)
• Getting better through practice and habit (which may become more pleasurable)
• The move from dependence on the expert to independence from the expert
When cultivating a particular character trait – for example kindness – we may start slowly, perhaps even unwillingly, and we need to be told what to do: most of us, as children, had to be constantly reminded to consider the needs of others. But we can learn to become kind by repeatedly acting (and being reminded to act) kind.
Through this process we educate our emotions, we become inclined to kindness, independently of our parent or teacher. We start to recognise what would be the kind thing to do, in particularly situations and we may even start to get pleasure from being virtuous, which provides further motivation for us to be virtuous in the future… through this habituations we start to develop ETHICA ARETE.
The cultivation of virtue is similar to the development of a skill. Mere habituation is not enough to create a genuine disposition.
We begin by following rules, but the world is complicated and the rules do not always apply so as we develop to learn to recognise how to act in different situations and contexts. In other words – we exercise our reason!
A virtue does not mean blindly following a habit, it means thinking through our reasons for behaving in a particular way.
There are key elements in the development of any skill:
• Initial observation, guidance and input by an expert
• Starting to practise the skill (this will be difficult and painful)
• Getting better through practice and habit (which may become more pleasurable)
• The move from dependence on the expert to independence from the expert
When cultivating a particular character trait – for example kindness – we may start slowly, perhaps even unwillingly, and we need to be told what to do: most of us, as children, had to be constantly reminded to consider the needs of others. But we can learn to become kind by repeatedly acting (and being reminded to act) kind.
Through this process we educate our emotions, we become inclined to kindness, independently of our parent or teacher. We start to recognise what would be the kind thing to do, in particularly situations and we may even start to get pleasure from being virtuous, which provides further motivation for us to be virtuous in the future… through this habituations we start to develop ETHICA ARETE.
The cultivation of virtue is similar to the development of a skill. Mere habituation is not enough to create a genuine disposition.
We begin by following rules, but the world is complicated and the rules do not always apply so as we develop to learn to recognise how to act in different situations and contexts. In other words – we exercise our reason!
A virtue does not mean blindly following a habit, it means thinking through our reasons for behaving in a particular way.